Integrated circuits (ICs) generally include a plurality of semiconductor devices (transistors, capacitors, resistors, etc.). Back-end-of-line (BEOL) processing is used to interconnect the plurality of semiconductor devices with wiring on the wafer and is also used to form contacts, insulating layers (dielectrics), metal levels, and bonding sites for chip-to-package connections. BEOL interconnects, including metal wiring lines and inter-level vias, carry direct current (DC) in the integrated circuits. Within BEOL interconnect structures, metal wiring lines run parallel to the substrate, and conductive vias run perpendicular to the substrate, with the conductive vias interconnecting different levels of the metal wiring lines. Typically, copper is used as the interconnect metal in BEOL interconnect structures, due to the higher conductivity of copper as versus metals such as aluminum.